Claudius Shrugged

Messalina emerged from her suite to share a light breakfast with her husband. It was not until he had finished munching his wine-soaked bread and cheese that Claudius finally responded to her careful pouting and asked what was wrong. Messalina's sulk darkened into a scowl. "I don't want to talk about it," she snapped.

"All right, don't then." Claudius shrugged.

Paul L. Maier, The Flames of Rome, p. 21

Outline of John Calvin's Short Treatise on the Lord's Supper

Short Treatise on the Supper of Our Lord, in which is Shown Its True Institution, Benefit, and Utility

Outline:

• Introduction (1-2)
• Why our Lord instituted this holy sacrament (3-6)
• Since in baptism we have entered God’s spiritual family, it makes sense for God to now nourish us with spiritual food (3-4)
• Christ is our only spiritual food (4-5)
• Christ is distributed to us by the word, but sometimes we are too weak to receive him when he is presented to us by simple doctrine and preaching (4-5)
• Three reasons (6)
• To sign and seal in our consciences the promises contained in his gospel concerning our being made partakers of his body and blood
• To exercise us in recognising his great goodness toward us, and thus lead us to laud and magnify him more fully
• To exhort us to all holiness and innocence, inasmuch as we are members of Jesus Christ; and specially to exhort us to union and brotherly charity
• What fruit and utility we receive from it (7-11; 17-19)
• Directs and leads us to the cross of Jesus Christ and to his resurrection (7-11; 17; cf. 12-16)
• We are presented Jesus Christ as the source and substance of all good (11)
• We are presented the fruit and efficacy of his death and passion (11)
• Helps us recognise our daily blessings, in order that we may ascribe to Jesus the praise which is due (18)
• Powerfully incites us to live holily, and especially observe charity and brotherly love toward all (19)
• How the visible elements are joined to the substance (12-16)
• Jesus is the substance and foundation of the sacraments (11-12)
• Our souls must feed on his body and blood as their proper food (13)
• The bread and wine represent his body and blood much as a dove represented the Spirit at his baptism (14)
• The sacraments should be distinguished from their substance, but one cannot exist without the other (15)
• The sacrament accomplishes what it signifies (16)
• The legitimate use of it (20-32)
• Examine yourselves before partaking (20-25)
• Perceive weakness in ourselves, and strength in Christ
• Dissatisfaction with our whole life
• Anxiety and fear
• Desire and love of righteousness, especially charity
• All are imperfect, but this should drive us to the sacrament (26-28; 30)
• Communion should be observed frequently (29; 32)
• Examine yourself, not your neighbors. It’s the church’s job, not the individual’s, to administer discipline. (31)
• The errors and superstitions with which it has been contaminated (33-52)
• Mass is a sacrifice (34-38)
• Transubstantiation (39-42)
• Carnal adoration (43)
• Infrequent (once per year) communion (44)
• Withholding the cup from the laity (45-46)
• The Word not accompanying the sacrament (48)
• Vain imitation of Old Testament rituals in the Roman sacraments (49-50)
• Recap of Roman errors (47; 51-52)
• Why so much discussion has arisen, even among the Reformers (53-60)
• I take no pleasure in these disputes, but I think it necessary to take part and describe them (53)
• God sometimes allows his people to err (54)
• Luther didn’t much alter the Roman doctrine of the corporal presence (55)
• Zwingli and Oecolampadius refuted the corporal presence but weren’t clear about believing in any kind of presence (56)
• Both parties failed in not having the patience to listen to each other (57-59)
• All agree that we truly partake the proper substance of the body and blood of Jesus Christ (60)

Early Christians on Obedience to the Civil Government

This is intended to be a survey of early Christian statements on whether or not it is right to submit to the ruling authorities. I tried to limit it to statements where they weren't simply paraphrasing Bible verses. Relevant verses include the "render unto Caesar" passage (found in Matthew 20, Mark 12, and Luke 20), 1 Peter 2, Romans 13, and a smattering of others (such as "we must obey God rather than men" in Acts 5:29). I'm also not including statements on whether or not to participate in government, which would be a worthwhile study of its own.

Let's start with this. I found this summary of church fathers' opinions helpful, though it's written by a modern scholar:

The problem of church-state relations was an acute one for the early Christians. How could they accept that a government that persecuted them had been ordained by God? Nevertheless, the Fathers consistently supported the idea that the civil authorities were divinely ordained within their own sphere. They had every right to exercise restraint on the body but not the soul. Christian obedience out of conscience must be serious in the temporal realm, but if the secular ruler transgressed his authority, it was the duty of believers to attest the truth by peaceful means. Secular rulers are entitled to punish criminals, and Christians accept this. Likewise, they obey the law of the land, paying their taxes and respecting those in authority, whether they agree with them or not. (Gerald Bray, Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture, Romans 13:1-7)

The reason I found that statement helpful is that it confirmed what I saw over and over again as I searched for direct statements from the fathers. The government is instituted by God, is to be obeyed, is not to be plotted against, and its well-being prayed for.

Wherefore we demand that the deeds of all those who are accused to you [the emperor] be judged, in order that each one who is convicted may be punished as an evil-doer, and not as a Christian; and if it is clear that any one is blameless, that he may be acquitted, since by the mere fact of his being a Christian he does no wrong. For we will not require that you punish our accusers; they being sufficiently punished by their present wickedness and ignorance of what is right. (Justin Martyr, First Apology)

For anarchy, be where it may, is an evil, and a cause of confusion. (John Chrysostom, Homily 23 on Romans)

The act of giving tax to Caesar does not prevent the service of God. (Severus of Antioch, Homily 104)

Without ceasing, for all our emperors we offer prayer. We pray for life prolonged; for security to the empire; for protection to the imperial house; for brave armies, a faithful senate, a virtuous people, the world at rest, whatever, as man or Cæsar, an emperor would wish. (Tertullian, Apology, 30)

No Christian ever [laid a plot against the state] in behalf of his brethren, even when persecution was scattering them abroad with every atrocity. (Tertullian, Apology, 46)

There were some subversive people who were saying that Christ had come to overthrow the state, teaching us that we should despise every earthly power. But when they see us submitting to them because it is God's will, then they are silenced, because they realize that they were wrongly trying to tear the kingdom of Christ in two. (Andreas, Catena, 1 Peter 2:15)

Is even that authority that persecutes God's servants, attacks the faith, and subverts religion, from God? ... All authority has been given by God "to punish those who are evil but to praise those who are good." ... But the judgment of God will be just in respect to those who govern the authority they have received in accordance with their own impieties and not in accordance with God's laws. ... It is clear that the worldly judge fulfills the greatest part of God's law. For all that God wants to be punished, he has willed that they be punished not through the priests and leaders of the churches, but through the worldly judge. And aware of this, Paul rightly names him a minister of God and an avenger of the one who does what is evil. (Origen, Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, Book 9, chapter 28)

I didn't even include Augustine's and Ambrosiaster's commentaries on Romans 13, but it's easy to verify that they teach the same things as the above writers.

Jesus to the apostles: "You're alright in my book"

Jesus gave authority to and validated the message of his apostles many times.

Before his death

Jesus gave his apostles the authority to do amazing things:

Jesus called his twelve disciples and gave them authority over unclean spirits so they could cast them out and heal every kind of disease and sickness. ... Jesus sent out these twelve, instructing them as follows: “Do not go to Gentile regions and do not enter any Samaritan town. Go instead to the lost sheep of the house of Israel. As you go, preach this message: ‘The kingdom of heaven is near!’ Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse lepers, cast out demons.” (Matthew 10:1,5-8)

And indeed, their names are written in heaven:

Then the seventy-two returned with joy, saying, “Lord, even the demons submit to us in your name!” So he said to them, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven. Look, I have given you authority to tread on snakes and scorpions and on the full force of the enemy, and nothing will hurt you. Nevertheless, do not rejoice that the spirits submit to you, but rejoice that your names stand written in heaven.” (Luke 10:17-20)

Jesus said that the Holy Spirit would speak through his apostles after he was gone:

Now as Jesus was going out of the temple courts, one of his disciples said to him, “Teacher, look at these tremendous stones and buildings!” Jesus said to him, “Do you see these great buildings? Not one stone will be left on another. All will be torn down! ... You must watch out for yourselves. You will be handed over to councils and beaten in the synagogues. You will stand before governors and kings because of me, as a witness to them. First the gospel must be preached to all nations.When they arrest you and hand you over for trial, do not worry about what to speak. But say whatever is given you at that time, for it is not you speaking, but the Holy Spirit.” (Mark 13:1-2,9-11)

He gave them the authority to forgive sins:

When Jesus came to the area of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, “Who do people say that the Son of Man is?” They answered, “Some say John the Baptist, others Elijah, and others Jeremiah or one of the prophets.” He said to them, “But who do you say that I am?” Simon Peter answered, “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God.” And Jesus answered him, “You are blessed, Simon son of Jonah, because flesh and blood did not reveal this to you, but my Father in heaven! And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overpower it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you bind on earth will have been bound in heaven, and whatever you release on earth will have been released in heaven.” (Matthew 16:13-19)

After his resurrection

The evening after his resurrection, more on the authority to forgive sins:

On the evening of that day, the first day of the week, the disciples had gathered together and locked the doors of the place because they were afraid of the Jewish leaders. Jesus came and stood among them and said to them, “Peace be with you.” When he had said this, he showed them his hands and his side. Then the disciples rejoiced when they saw the Lord. So Jesus said to them again, “Peace be with you. Just as the Father has sent me, I also send you.” And after he said this, he breathed on them and said, “Receive the Holy Spirit. If you forgive anyone’s sins, they are forgiven; if you retain anyone’s sins, they are retained.” (John 20:19-23)

How can he give them this authority? Because he has all authority, to give to whomever he pleases. And it pleased him much to give it to his chosen apostles, whom he promised he would remain present with even after ascending into heaven:

So the eleven disciples went to Galilee to the mountain Jesus had designated. When they saw him, they worshiped him, but some doubted. Then Jesus came up and said to them, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And remember, I am with you always, to the end of the age.” (Matthew 28:16-20)

Moments before his ascension, he promised once again that they would receive the Holy Spirit and that they would preach powerful truths about him throughout the world:

So when they had gathered together, they began to ask him, “Lord, is this the time when you are restoring the kingdom to Israel?” He told them, “You are not permitted to know the times or periods that the Father has set by his own authority. But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you, and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the farthest parts of the earth.” After he had said this, while they were watching, he was lifted up and a cloud hid him from their sight. (Acts 1:6-9)

All verses are quoted from the NET.

Why aren't Muslim beliefs about Jesus sufficient?

In a discussion with a Muslim, he asked:

We believe that Jesus is in heaven, that he is one of the most beloved prophets, al-Masih, and we highly respect him. Why wouldn't that suffice?

Islam says that on the day of judgment, our good deeds will be weighed against our bad deeds on the scales of justice. (Al-'Anbyā' 21:47) That's bad news, since as the prophet Isaiah tells us, even our "righteous acts are like filthy rags." (Isaiah 64:6) Nothing we've done is untainted by sin and selfishness.

On the other hand, we're offered forgiveness via the perfect sacrifice of Jesus. Forgiveness! Absolution! Mercy! That's good news. We no longer have to climb an infinite ladder to God. Jesus himself is the ladder, and he himself has come down from heaven for us and for our salvation, and he has returned to heaven, making a way for us. None of that is possible without him being "true God in order to conquer death by his power, and truly human that he might die for us in the weakness of his flesh." (Belgic Confession, Art. 19)

Implicitly, this Muslim is asking what one must confess to be saved. Of course, the Muslim answer is, "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger." But Christians have always had a different answer: "If you confess with your mouth that Jesus is Lord and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved." (Romans 10:9)

And returning for a moment to the idea of the scales of justice, that too was repudiated in the earliest days of Christianity: "A person is not justified by the works of the law, but by faith in Jesus Christ. … I do not set aside the grace of God, for if righteousness could be gained through the law, Christ died for nothing!" (Galatians 2:16,21)

That's entirely contrary to Islam's view of judgment, and it's completely based on Christ's death and resurrection (which Jesus predicted many times, unambiguously, throughout his ministry). Christians have always viewed Christ's death and resurrection as essential tenets of faith. If that aspect of the Bible was corrupted, it might be worth asking why God allowed his servant's words and actions to be so hopelessly manipulated so incredibly early.